Safer choices should be based on evidence- not fear, marketing, or trends.

Below are some of the main studies that inform how we evaluate products and materials for the home. These studies don't mean that every chemical is dangerous or that every exposure causes harm. They help us understand where exposure happens, which chemicals can enter our bodies, and which product choices may reduce unnecessary exposure to live healthier safer lives.

​

1. What we put on our skin doesn't necessarily stay on our skin.

Claim: Some chemicals used in personal-care products can be absorbed through the skin and enter the body.

A human study found that phthalates and parabens applied to the skin were systemically absorbed, metabolized, and excreted in urine. Another randomized clinical trial found that six sunscreen active ingredients were systemically absorbed and measurable in blood following topical application.

Research:

• Janjua et al., 2008 — Urinary excretion of phthalates and paraben after repeated whole-body topical application in humans
PubMed study

• Matta et al., 2020 — Effect of Sunscreen Application on Plasma Concentration of Sunscreen Active Ingredients: A Randomized Clinical Trial
PubMed study

​

2. Cleaning products can change the chemistry of the air inside your home.

Claim: Cleaning and disinfecting products can release chemicals and particulate matter into indoor air, increasing occupants' exposure.

A 2024 review of the scientific literature concluded that cleaning and disinfecting products can increase exposure to a variety of chemical air contaminants and particulate matter. The authors also reviewed evidence connecting cleaning-product exposure with respiratory effects.

Research:

• Salonen et al., 2024 — Cleaning products: Their chemistry, effects on indoor air quality, and implications for human health
PubMed study

​

3. Fragrance isn't one ingredient.

Claim: “Fragrance” can represent mixtures of numerous volatile chemicals that are released into indoor air.

Fragrance ingredients are used in personal-care products, cleaning products, air fresheners, and other household products. Research has examined their emissions and potential effects on indoor air quality.

Research:

• Rádis-Baptista, 2023 — Do Synthetic Fragrances in Personal Care and Household Products Impact Indoor Air Quality and Pose Health Risks?
PubMed study

• Steinemann, 2016 — Fragranced consumer products: exposures and effects from emissions
PubMed study

​

4. “Natural” doesn't automatically mean “low exposure.”

Claim: Plant-derived ingredients and essential oils can still release volatile chemicals into indoor air.

Essential-oil-based cleaning products and air fresheners can be significant sources of terpenes. These compounds can react with indoor oxidants and contribute to secondary pollutants, including formaldehyde and secondary organic aerosols.

Research:

• Capouet et al., 2020 — Does the ubiquitous use of essential oil-based products promote indoor air quality? A critical literature review
PubMed study

The takeaway: Natural describes an ingredient's origin. It doesn't automatically describe its toxicity, emissions, or exposure potential.

​

5. Spray products can put chemicals directly into the air you're breathing.

Claim: Consumer spray products can emit numerous volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

Researchers analyzed 48 different spray-type consumer products and tentatively identified 254 VOCs across the products tested.

Research:

• Kim et al., 2023 — Non-target screening of volatile organic compounds in spray-type consumer products and their potential health risks
PubMed study

This doesn't mean every VOC identified is hazardous at the concentrations produced during normal use. It demonstrates why the formulation and application method of a product matter when considering indoor exposure.

​

6. Household dust can contain chemicals from the products and materials around us.

Claim: Indoor dust can act as a reservoir for chemicals originating from consumer products and building materials.

A quantitative meta-analysis of U.S. studies found multiple classes of consumer-product chemicals in indoor dust, including phthalates, flame retardants, synthetic fragrances, PFAS, and environmental phenols.

Research:

• Mitro et al., 2016 — Consumer Product Chemicals in Indoor Dust: A Quantitative Meta-analysis of U.S. Studies
PubMed study

​

7. Indoor dust isn't just dirt- it can be an exposure pathway.

Claim: Chemicals found in indoor dust can contribute to human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact.

A review of endocrine-disrupting chemicals in indoor dust found that phthalates, flame retardants, bisphenols, PFAS, biocides, and personal-care-product additives are commonly detected. The authors also identified evidence connecting some chemicals in indoor dust with paired human samples.

Research:

• Zhu et al., 2023 — Endocrine disrupting chemicals in indoor dust: A review of temporal and spatial trends, and human exposure
PubMed study

 

8. Children are measurably exposed to chemicals used in everyday consumer products.

Claim: Biomonitoring studies can detect chemicals associated with consumer products inside children's bodies.

In a study of 562 children ages 5–12, more than 75% had measurable exposure to bisphenols and parabens, and every child assessed for phthalates had exposure to at least one phthalate.

Research:

• Dualde et al., 2021 — Biomonitoring of Phthalates, Bisphenols and Parabens in Children: Exposure, Predictors and Risk Assessment
PubMed study

​

9. Personal-care products can be a major source of phthalate exposure.

Claim: Use of certain personal-care products is associated with higher urinary concentrations of some phthalate metabolites.

Research has found associations between use of fragrance-containing personal-care products including perfumes, shampoos, body lotions, and hair products with urinary concentrations of certain phthalate metabolites.

Research:

• Exposure to phthalates from personal care products: Urinary levels and predictors of exposure
PubMed study

​

10. Changing personal-care products can measurably change chemical exposure.

Claim: Reducing the use of certain personal-care products can reduce biomarkers of exposure to some chemicals.

In the HERMOSA intervention study, adolescent girls switched for three days to personal-care products whose labels stated that they did not contain certain phthalates, parabens, triclosan, and benzophenone-3. Researchers measured changes in urinary biomarkers before and after the intervention.

Research:

• Harley et al., 2016 — Reducing Phthalate, Paraben, and Phenol Exposure from Personal Care Products in Adolescent Girls: Findings from the HERMOSA Intervention Study
PubMed study

​

11. PFAS can be found in consumer products and food-contact materials.

Claim: PFAS have been used in a range of consumer products, including some food-contact materials, textiles, and personal-hygiene products, creating potential routes of human exposure.

A 2025 review examined the occurrence, migration, and exposure assessment of PFAS in consumer products. A separate systematic review identified PFAS in food-contact materials and evaluated available migration and hazard data.

Research:

• Yang et al., 2025 — Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Consumer Products: An Overview of the Occurrence, Migration, and Exposure Assessment
PubMed study

• Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Food Packaging: Migration, Toxicity, and Management Strategies
PubMed study

​

12. Food packaging can transfer chemicals into food.

Claim: Chemicals used in food packaging can migrate from packaging materials into food.

A 2025 systematic review examined 67 studies involving more than 5,000 samples and found consistent evidence that phthalates and bisphenols can migrate from food packaging into food. The review also examined PFAS migration.

Research:

• Phthalates, bisphenols and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances migration from food packaging into food: a systematic review
PubMed study

​

13. Consumer products can contribute chemicals to indoor air and dust.

Claim: Chemicals don't necessarily stay where we initially put them.

A review of semi-volatile organic compounds found chemicals associated with consumer products in indoor air and dust, including plasticizers, flame retardants, pesticides, and PFAS. The research highlights the connection between chemicals in products and chemicals measured in indoor environments.

Research:

• Lucattini et al., 2018 — A review of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the indoor environment: occurrence in consumer products, indoor air and dust
PubMed study

​

14. Cleaning-product exposure has been associated with respiratory effects in children.

Claim: Research has found associations between household cleaning-product exposure and respiratory outcomes in children.

A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis examined 16 studies and reported an association between household cleaning-agent exposure and pediatric asthma. Because the underlying studies varied considerably, this should be presented as an association, not proof that cleaning products cause asthma in an individual child.

Research:

• Arif et al., 2025 — Household cleaning agents impact on pediatric asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis
PubMed study

​

Science rarely gives us a simple “safe” or “toxic” label and chemical's hazard is not the same thing as the risk from a particular exposure. Dose, route, frequency, duration, formulation, ventilation, and individual susceptibility all matter.